Chapter: 1
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
Q.1: Write a note on:
(a) Guiseppe Mazzini
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour
(c) The Greek War of Independence
(d) Frankfurt Parliament
(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Ans:
(a) Guiseppe Mazzini - He was a young revolutionary of Italy who played a significant in promoting the idea of a unified Italian state. He believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. At that time Italy was divided into a number of small states and kingdoms. During the 1830s, Mazzini tried to overthrow different monarchies and led a revolution to unify Italy. He also set up two secret revolutionary organizations, namely Young Italy and Young Europe. But the revolution failed and Mazzini was sent into exile. However, his ideas later inspired Cavour who ultimately unified in the second half of the 19th century.
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour - Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861) was prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Cavour led the movement to unify the separate states of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He had a powerful diplomatic alliance with France, which helped him to defeat the Austrian forces in 1859. Thus, in 1861, Italy was unified and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the King of unified Italy.
(c) The Greek War of Independence - This was a successful war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1829 against Ottoman Empire. The Greek nationals got influenced by the idea of Liberal nationalism. In this war the Greeks were supported by the West European countries, while the poets and artists, who added romanticism to the Greek struggle of independence, also participated in this war against Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
(d) Frankfurt Parliament - The German middle class decided to vote for an all - German National Assembly in 1848, and hence came to Frankfurt. Around 1831 persons were elected. They comprised the National Assembly. The assembly decided to organize Frankfurt Parliament in the church of St. Paul. Thus, on 18th May, 1848 the famous Frankfurt Parliament was convened. The assembly decided that the German nation would be a monarchy controlled by Parliament, and offered this term to the Prussian King. But he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The parliament faced strong opposition from aristocracy and military. The Parliament was dominated by the middle class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans. As a result of this the middle class lost their mass support. Ultimately, the monarchy and military combined together with aristocracy, won over the liberal nationalist middle class and the assembly was forced to disband.
Therefore, the Frankfurt Parliament is famous in history as a failure of liberalism and victory of monarchy.
(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles - Women played a very significant role in the nationalist struggle all over the world. They led the movements, faced the tortures of police, stood by their male counterparts, spread the idea of liberal nationalism and also participated in the various revolutionary organizations. For example, we have studied how men and women participated equally in the movements of the French Revolution. Liberty is personified as a women and also liberal nationalism proposed the idea of universal suffrage, leading to women’s active participation in nationalist movements in Europe. But in spite of their active participation in nationalist struggles, they were given little or no political rights, right to vote etc. till the end of 19th century.
Q.2: What steps did French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
Ans: The French revolutionaries took following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people:
(1) They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citogen (the citizen).
(2) These ideas emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(3) They choose a new French flag, to replace the former royal standard.
(4) The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected by a group of active citizens.
(5) They composed new hymns, took oaths and commemorated martyrs, all in the name of nation.
(6) They established a centralized administrative system, which formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
(7) They adopted a uniform system of weights and measures and abolished internal custom duties.
(8) They promoted French over the regional dialects.
(9) They further declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate people of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other people of Europe to become nations.
Q.3: who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Ans: Marianne was the female allegory of French nation. Similarly, Germania was the female allegory of German nation.
They stood as personifications of ideals like ‘Liberty’ and ‘The Republic’. They were portrayed in such a way that it sought to give an abstract idea of the nation in a concrete form and would instill a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries.
Q.4: Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Ans: The liberal minded middle class of German Confederacy met in the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848, with an objective of establishing Germany as a nation. But they failed miserably. The parliament ended with monarchial, military and aristocratic triumph. Later on, the Chief Minister of Prussia, Otto Von Bismark led the movement of unity of the German Confederacy. He organized the military wars and mobilized bureaucracy against the countries which had occupied the German states. He fought three wars for over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France, which he won. This completed theprocess of German unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
Q.5: What changes did Napoleon introduced to make the administrative system more efficient in territories ruled by him?
Ans: Napoleon introduced following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the areas ruled by him:
1. He established civil code in 1804 also known as the Napoleonic Code. It did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property.
2. He simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3. In towns too, guild systems were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
4. Peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed the new found freedom.
By introducing these changes Napoleon made the whole administrative system more rational and efficient.
Discuss
Q1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolutions of the liberals. What were the Political, Social and Economic ideas supported by the Liberals?
Ans:
The 1848 Revolutions of the Liberals:
(i) It was a revolt, which was led by unemployed, workers, and peasants and educated middle class.
(ii) Events of February 1848 in France had brought about abdication of the monarch and a Republic based on universal suffrage had been proclaimed.
(iii) The changes in France inspired men and women of middle class of Germany, Italy, Poland and Austro-Hungarian to fight for national unification.
(iv) The liberals took advantage of the unrest prevailing in the society. They demanded the creation of nation state on parliamentary principles, freedom of press, freedom of association.
Political, Social and Economic ideas of Liberals:
(i) The liberals demanded the creation of nation state on parliamentary principles.
(ii) The issue of extending political rights for women was controversial as some of them were in favour of political rights for women while most of the liberals were against it.
(iii) Serfdom and bonded labour was abolished in most of the European countries due to the efforts of the liberals.
Q2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe?
Ans: Contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:
[1] Role of Culture:
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of nations, art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Romanticism, is a cultural movement that sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. The effort of the artists and the poets was to basically create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
[2] Role of Music, Dance.etc.
Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularized.
[3] Role of Language:
Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. In1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place, which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
Q3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19th century.
Ans:
The making of nationalism in Germany and Italy:
(i) In the mid of the 18th century in Europe there were no nation states as we know of them today.
(ii) Germany and Italy were divided into kingdoms. Eastern and Central Europe was under autocratic rule with in the territories lived people of diverse cultures.
(iii) The Habsburg empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was an area having intense diversity of culture and language too. It included the Alpine regions- the Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland- as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German speaking. It also included the Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
(iv) In Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke different dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
Thus such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding them was a common kingdom.
Through the 19th century nationalist feeling kept arising but the autocracy and the clergy suppressed most of it.
Q4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans:
NATIONALISM IN BRITAIN
Britain in earlier times
There was no British nation prior to the 18th century. The ethnic groups consisted of the English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. All of them had different cultures and political interests.
Becoming a supreme power
The English Parliament had seized power from the monarchy in 1688. It was an instrument through which a nation-state with England at its Centre came to be forged.
Dominance over Scotland
The Act of Union made Scotland to come under England. The English people dominated the English Parliament. Catholic people also faced terrible repression whenever they tried to assert their freedom. The Scottish Highlanders were not allowed to speak their national language and wear their national clothes. Many were driven out of their homeland.
Domination over Ireland
Ireland was deeply divided into Protestants and the Catholics. The English helped Protestants to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
New Britain
The symbols of the new Britain were: the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English Language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in the nations.
Q5. Why did Nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans:
NATIONALISM AMONG BALKANS
The Balkans
It was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs.
Spread of Nationalism
The spread of the idea of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
Claim of Independence
The Balkans based their claims for independence of political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had been subjugated by foreign power.
Hence, the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as their attempts to win back their long lost independence.
Area of intense conflict
As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their territories the Balkan region became a region of intense conflict. The Balkan states were extremely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the other. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
Chapter: 2
NATIONALISM IN INDIA
Q.1: Explain:
(a) Why growth of nationalism in colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement ?
(b) How did the First World War help in the growth of National Movement in India ?
(c) Why were Indians outraged by the Rowlatt Act ?
(d) Why did Gandhiji decide to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement ?
Ans:
(a) People were already struggling against the colonial rule in India. Nationalist sentiments surged during the process of their struggle against the colonial government. The sense of oppression and exploitation became a common cause for bringing the people from different classes, communities and castes together to fight against the colonial rule. This resulted in the growth of nationalism in the colonies. Hence, anti-colonial movement became a breeding ground for the growth of nationalism in all colonies.
(b) During the First World War people were recruited unwillingly by the British army from rural areas in India. To meet the defense expenditure, colonial government imposed high custom duties, income taxes etc. on Indians. Villagers were forced to do beggar for the construction of roads. Also, the failure of crops in many parts of India during this period led to acute food shortages and price rise. All this resulted in extreme hardship for the common people, caused anger and the spread of anti-British and nationalist feelings among Indians.
(c) The Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act because of the following reasons:
1. Despite the united opposition of the Indian members, the Imperial Legislative Council hurriedly passed this Act.
2. This Act provided the colonial government with the autocratic powers to repress the political activities of Indians.
3. Under this Act the political prisoners could be detained for two years without any trial.
(d) Gandhiji withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 due to the violent activities of Indian people at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur. Gandhiji felt that the people were not yet ready for a mass struggle, and they needed more time and training to understand how to carry out a non-violent demonstration successfully.
Q.2: What is meant by the idea Satyagraha?
Ans: Satyagraha was a novel method of mass agitation. The idea of Satyagraha emphasized upon the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true and if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
Through non-violent methods a Satyagraha could appeal the conscience of the oppressor by the power of truth, which was bound to win.
Q.3: Write a newspaper report on:
(a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
(b) The Simon Commission
Ans:
(a) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
On 13th April 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh – some to protest against the British government’s repressive measures, others to attend the annual Baishakhi Fair. These people were unaware of the imposition of Marshal Law in the city. General Dyer, the Commander, blocked the exit points from the Bagh and opened fire upon the innocent citizens. Dyer’s intention was to produce a ‘moral effect’ and terrorize satyagrahis. Hundreds of innocent people including women and children were killed and wounded due to this indiscriminate firing by the British soldiers, which ultimately led to nation-wide outrage. Jallianwala Bagh incident was the most brutal incident in the History of India.
(b) The Simon Commission
The Simon Commission was constituted by the Tory Government in Britain, under Sir John Simon. The objective of the Commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest some constitutional changes. But nationalists in India opposed the Commission because it had not a single Indian member. Therefore, when the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan “Go Back Simon”. All parties, including Congress and the Muslim league, participated in the demonstrations.
Q.4: Compare the images Bharat Mata in this Chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.
Ans: (i) The image of Germania was the symbol of German nation whereas; the image of Bharat Mata was the symbol of Indian nation.
(ii) Both images inspired nationalists who worked very hard to unify their respective countries and to attain a liberal nation.
(iii) The image of Bharat Mata is different from that of Germania in the sense that former reflects the religious basis of its making.
(iv) The image of Bharat Mata painted by Abanindranath Tagore is bestowedwith learning, food, clothing and some ascetic quality also. Another painting of Bharat Mata in which we find Mata holding Trishul and standing beside a lion and an elephant – symbols of power and authority. This image appears to be more akin to the image of Germania where she holds a sword and a shield.
Discuss
Q.1: List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.
Ans: The different social groups that joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921 were:
(a) Middle class people of the society comprising students, teachers, lawyers etc.
(b) Different political parties except the Justice Party of Madras.
(c) Peasants of Awadh led by Baba Ramchandra.
(d) Plantation workers of Assam.
(e) Tribals of Andhra Pradesh led by Alluri Sitaram Raju.
Given below are brief discussions about some of the social groups which show why they joined the Non-Cooperation Movement:
Peasants of Awadh - The conditions of Peasants of Awadh were very bad. They did not have their own land and had to cultivate the landlord’s fields. The landlords demanded high rents and also forced them to do free labour. If these peasants failed to pay the rent in time they were thrown out of their lands as well as the crops grown by them. Often they were trapped into debt cycle. Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi, led these poor peasants movement and established ‘Oudh Kisan Sabha’ in 1920. This movement later merged with the Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement.
Tribals of Andhra Pradesh - The tribals of AP revolted against the policy of British Government to enclose the large forests as a result of which they were deprived of their livelihood and traditional rights. Under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju, who firmly believed in Gandhi except his non-violent methods of attaining freedom, tribals rebelled against the British Government. They joined the Non-Cooperation Movement but violently. They hoped that this could only end the British rule and bring Gandhi Raj when they will be able to regain their lost grounds.
Plantation Workers - The British government after enacting the Inland Emigration Act of 1859 restricted the plantation workers of Assam from leaving the tea gardens without permission. Plantation workers wanted freedom to move about and retain links with the villages they came from. When they heard about the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of them defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi Raj would come and everyone would be given land in their own villages.
Q.2: Discuss the salt march to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.
Ans: Gandhiji on January 31st 1930 sent a letter to then Viceroy Irwin, containing eleven most essential demands. Some of these were of general interests while, others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialists to peasants.
The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, so that all classes within the Indian society could identify with them and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign. But the most unusual of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was one of the essential food items consumed by the rich and the poor alike. According to Gandhiji the tax on the salt and the government monopoly over its production revealed the most oppressive face of the British rule. On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji reached Dandi and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water.By the successful Dandi March, Gandhiji not only let down the British government in his own way of satyagraha, but also set forth an example before the nation how the oppressor could be confronted through non-violent methods. The Salt March proved to be the most significant symbol of resistance against colonialism and marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Q3. Imagine you are a women participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the experience ment to your life.
Ans facts—salt manufactured; foreign cloth boycotted; liquor shops picketed; peaceful satyagrahis attacked, including women and children; brutal repression, many women went to jail as well; mostly from high castes and rich families; saw national service as a sacred duty
(Base your answer on these facts)
Q.4: Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates ? Ans: Political leaders represented different classes and communities of Indian society. They differed sharply over the question of separate electorates mainly because of the differences in their opinions. These leaders wanted to uplift the status of their followers by securing some special political rights through separate electorates for them. But Congress Party, especially Gandhiji was of the opinion that separate would further slow down the freedom movement and also adversely affect the unity of the country. He feared that such a system of separate electorates would give rise to communalism and divide the country into numerous fragments.
CHAPTER:3
THE RISE OF GLOBAL WORLD
Q1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
Ans. Examples of the different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century:
1) Textiles, spices and Chinese pottery were exchanged by China, India and Southeast Asia in return for gold and silver from Europe.
2) Gold and foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes and chillies were first exported from the Americas to Europe.
Q2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.
Ans. The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas because the native American Indians were not immune to the diseases that the settlers and colonisers brought with them. The Europeans were more or less immune to small pox, but the native Americans, having been cut off from the rest of the world for millions of years, had no defence against it. These germs killed and wiped out whole communities, paving the way for foreign domination. Weapons and soldiers could be destroyed or captured, but diseases could not be fought against.
Q3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:
(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.
(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.
(c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War.
(d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.
(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
Ans.
(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws resulted in losses for the agricultural sector, but progress in the industrial sector. Food began to be imported more cheaply into Britain, and thousands of workers involved in cultivation became unemployed. However, consumption increased and the industrial sector grew, with more workers being available in cities than in rural areas.
(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa caused a loss of livelihood for countless Africans. Using this situation to their advantage, colonising nations conquered and subdued Africa by monopolising scarce cattle resources to force Africans into the labour market.
(c) The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe, leading to a steady decline in household incomes and a consequent struggle to meet the living expenditure by families whose men were handicapped or killed.
(d) The Great Depression had a major impact on the Indian economy. Between 1928 and 1934, it reduced Indian imports and exports by nearly half. Wheat prices too fell by 50% during this time. More than the urban areas, the agricultural sector (which dominated livelihoods in rural lands) was badly hit by the Great Depression.
(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries led to a stimulation of world trade and capital flows. This relocation was on account of low-cost structure and lower wages in Asian countries. It also benefitted the Asian nations because employment increased, and this resulted in quick economic transformation as well.
Q4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
Ans. The impact of technology on food availability was manifold in the late nineteenth century. Faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped transport food more cheaply and quickly from production units to even faraway markets. Also, refrigerated ships helped transport perishable foods such as meat, butter and eggs over long distances.
Q5.What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?
Ans. The Bretton Woods Agreement was finalised in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. It established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to preserve global economic stability and full employment in the industrial world. These institutions also dealt with external surpluses and deficits of member nations, and financed post-war reconstructions.
Q6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.
Ans. Indentured Indian labourers in the Carribbean—facts—signed a contract stating that they would return to India after working for five years at a plantation; belonged to eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu; migrants took up the overseas jobs hoping to escape poverty and oppression in their home villages; migrants were not even informed about the long sea voyages, and some unwilling ones were abducted as well; also known as “the new system of slavery”; harsh living and working conditions; few legal rights; many escaped into the wilds; some developed new art forms for expression; some returned home after the contract period, while others stayed on (Base your letter on these facts.)
Q7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
Ans. The three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange are trade flows, human capital flows and capital flows or investments. These can be explained as—the trade in agricultural products, migration of labour, and financial loans to and from other nations.
India was a hub of trade in the pre-modern world, and it exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver from Europe. Many different foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies and sweet potatoes came to India from the Americas after Columbus discovered it.
In the field of labour, indentured labour was provided for mines, plantations and factories abroad, in huge numbers, in the nineteenth century. This was an instrument of colonial domination by the British.
Lastly, Britain took generous loans from USA to finance the World War. Since India was an English colony, the impact of these loan debts was felt in India too. The British government increased taxes, interest rates, and lowered the prices of products it bought from the colony. Indirectly, but strongly, this affected the Indian economy and people.
Q8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
Ans. The Great Depression was a result of many different factors. The post-war global economy was weak. Also, agricultural over-production proved to be a nuisance, which was made worse by falling food grain prices. To counter this, farmers began to increase production and bring even more produce to the markets to maintain their annual incomes. This led to such a glut of food grains that prices plummeted further and farm produce was left to rot. Most countries took loans from the US, but American overseas lenders were wary about the same. When they decreased the amount of loans, the countries economically dependent on US loans faced an acute crisis. In Europe, this led to the failure of major banks and currencies such as the British pound sterling. In a bid to protect the American economy, USA doubled import duties. This worsened the world trade scenario. All these factors contributed to the Great Depression. It affected USA the worst on account of its being a global loan provider and the biggest industrial nation.
Q9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
Ans. G-77 countries is an abbreviation for the group of 77 countries that demanded a new international economic order (NIEO); a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, without being victims of neo-colonialism, that is, a new form of colonialism in trade practised by the former colonial powers.
The G-77 can be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins (the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) because these two institutions were designed to meet the financial needs of industrial and developed countries, and did nothing for the economic growth of former colonies and developing nations.
Chapter : 4
The Age of Industrialisation
Q1. Explain the following:
(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages.
(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of eighteenth century.
(d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.
Answer
(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny because it could spin many spindles with one wheel. This increased productivity and led to decrease in employment of women for spinning. Angry women therefore, attacked the machine.
(b) The trade and commerce guild controlled the market, raw materials, employees, and also production of goods in the towns. This created problems for merchants who wanted to increase production by employing more men. Therefore, they turned to peasants and artisans who lived in villages.
(c) By the end of 18th century the port of Surat declined mainly because of the growing power of the European Companies in India. These European Companies gradually gained power and started to control sea-trade in India. They secured a variety of concessions which they obtained from local courts and by gaining monopoly rights to trade. These companies did not want to use the old ports of Surat, Masulipatnam, and Hooghly etc. In stead they developed the port of Bombay.
(d) As the East India Company established political power in India, it wanted to further assert a monopoly right to cotton textile silk trade. The Company’s objective was to develop a system of management and direct control over the weavers so that it could eliminate competition over costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. They did this through a series of steps. So, with this aim they appointed ‘gomasthas’ as their paid servants to supervise weavers, ensure timely supplies, examine the quality of cloth and also advanced loans to weavers.
Q: 2 Write True or False against each statement.
(a) At the end of 19th century, 80% of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.
(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the 18th century.
(c) The American civil war resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.
(d) The introduction of fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productivity.
Ans. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) True
Q: 3 Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation.
Ans. ‘Proto’ means the first or early form of something. By proto-industrialisation historians refer to the period in which Europe and England produced goods for the international market, on a large scale, even before there were factories. Thus, proto-industrialisation is meant for the phase of industrialisation when handmade products were produced for the industrial market.
Q: 4 Why did some industrialists in 19th century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
Ans. Some industrialists in 19th century Europe prefer hand labour over machines due to the following reasons:
a. Machines were costly, ineffective, difficult to repair, and needed huge capital investments.
b. Labour was available at low wages at that period of time.
c. In seasonal industries only seasonal labour was required.
d. Market demands of variety of designs and colour and specific type could not be fulfilled by machine made clothes. Intricate designs and colours could be done by human-skills only.
e. In Victorian age, the aristocrats and other upper class people preferred articles made by hand only.
Q: 5 How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian Weavers ?
Ans. The East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian Weavers by -
(i) It eliminated the existing traders and brokers and established a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth.
(ii) It prevented Company weavers from dealing with other buyers.
Q: 6 Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopaedia on Britain and the history of cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.
Ans. Britain and the History of Cotton
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants would trade with rural people in textile production. A clothier would buy wool from a wool stapler, carry it to the spinners, and then, take the yarn to the weavers, fuller and dyers for further levels of production. London was the finishing centre for these goods. This phase in British manufacturing history is known as proto-industrialisation. In this phase, factories were not an essential part of industry. What was present instead was a network of commercial exchanges.
The first symbol of the new era of factories was cotton. Its production increased rapidly in the late nineteenth century. Imports of raw cotton sky-rocketed from 2.5 million pounds in 1760 to 22 million pounds in 1787. This happened because of the invention of the cotton mill and new machines, and better management under one roof. Till 1840, cotton was the leading sector in the first stage of industrialisation.
Most inventions in the textile production sector were met with disregard and hatred by the workers because machines implied less hand labour and lower employment needs. The Spinning Jenny was one such invention. Women in the woollen industry opposed and sought to destroy it because it was taking over their place in the labour market.
Before such technological advancements, Britain imported silk and cotton goods from India in vast numbers. Fine textiles from India were in high demand in England. When the East India Company attained political power, they exploited the weavers and textile industry in India to its full potential, often by force, for the benefit of Britain. Later, Manchester became the hub of cotton production. Subsequently, India was turned into the major buyer of British cotton goods.
During the First World War, British factories were too busy providing for war needs. Hence, demand for Indian textiles rose once again. The history of cotton in Britain is replete with such fluctuations of demand and supply.
Q: 7 Why did industrial production in India increase during First World War?
Ans. India witnessed increased industrial production during the First World War due to following reasons:
(i) British industries became busy in producing and supplying war-needs. Hence, they stopped exporting British goods or clothes for colonial markets like that in India.
(ii) It was a good opportunity for Indian industries to fill in empty Indian markets with their products. It was done so. Therefore, industrial production in India increased.
(iii) Also the British colonial government asked Indian factories to supply the war needs like - jute bags, cloth or army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddle, etc.
(iv) The increased demands of variety of products led to the setting up of new factories and old ones increased their production.
(v) Many new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hours.
These were the various reasons responsible for the boom in the industrial production in India during the First World War.
CHAPTER : 5
Work, Life and Leisure
Q: 1 Give two reasons why the population of London expanded from the middle of the eighteenth century.
Answer. The city of London was a magnet for the migrant populations due to the job opportunities provided by its dockyards and industries. By 1750, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. So, the population of London kept expanding through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
During the first world war, London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods. This increased the number of large factories, which in turn increased the number of people coming to the city in search of work.
Q: 2 What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the nineteenth and the twentieth century? Explain the factors which led to this change.
Ans. Changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the nineteenth and the twentieth century were primarily based on industrial and technological advancements. Consequently, women had to work in households for a living, and this led to an increase in the number of domestic servants. Some women also began to earn by lodging out rooms, tailoring, washing or making matchboxes. With the coming of the First World War though, women once again joined the industrial sector.
Q: 3 How does the existence of a large urban population affect each of the following? Illustrate with historical examples.
(a) A private landlord
(b) A Police Superintendent in charge of law and order
(c) A leader of a political party
Answer
(a) The existence of a large urban population means that there would be greater number of individuals in need of a place to stay. This increased demand for places of residence is profitable for private landlords who can then rent out rooms at high rates. In nineteenth-century London, individual landowners made huge profits by taking advantage of the helplessness of the hoards of migrants in the city who needed a place to live.
(b) The existence of a large urban population means that there are increased cases of crimes, social conflict and rebellion. Police are responsible for maintaining the law and order. Hence, a police superintendent would definitely have increased work on his/her hands. In nineteenth-century London, policemen had a tough time controlling crime during the migrant influx. In the 1870s, there were 20,000 criminals living in London. The job of a policeman was made more complex in hunting down pick-pockets, thieves, cheats and tricksters whose numbers kept multiplying.
(c) The existence of a large urban population implies the simultaneous presence of several social problems, such as problems of housing, food, water, etc. These issues become policial issues when they are taken up by political parties. A political party and its leaders can mobilise the masses to support them in these political causes. This was the case in nineteenth-century London as well.
Q: 4 Give explanations for the following:
(a) Why well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth century.
(b) Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants.
(c) What led to the major expansion of Bombay’s population in the mid-nineteenth century.
Answer
(a) Well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth century on account of three reasons: one-room houses of the poor came to be seen as the breeding ground of diseases, and hence, a threat to public health; fire hazards became a worry in these over-crowded, badly ventilated, unhygienic homes; lastly, there was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the 1917 Russian Revolution. Housing schemes were undertaken to avoid a rebellion by the poor.
(b) Bombay became an attractive destination for people seeking jobs after the British administration replaced Surat with Bombay as its principal western port. The consequent increase in trade and industries led to a great influx of people. Thus, migrants were (and still are) an important facet of Bombay. Most of the people in the film industry were migrants themselves, and wanted to portray the plight of this class of people through films. Thus, a number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants.
(c) In mid-seventeenth century, Bombay became East India Company’s principal western port, replacing Surat. Later, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had become an important administrative as well as industrial centre. All through these years, the prospects for trade and commerce, and employment kept increasing, thereby making Bombay an attractive destination for migrants.
Q5. What forms of entertainment came up in nineteenth century England to provide leisure activities for the people.
Ans. Forms of entertainment that came up in nineteenth-century England to provide leisure activities for the people were aplenty. For the upper classes, an annual “London Season” was one of the sources of leisure. It comprised the opera, the theatre and classical music events. For the working classes, pubs, discussions and meetings for political action served the same purpose. Libraries, art galleries and museums were new types of entertainment brought about through the utilisation of state money. Music halls and cinema theatres too became immensely popular with the lower classes. Industrial workers were encouraged to undertake seaside vacations to rejuvenate from the banes of working in the polluting environment of factories.
Q: 6 Explain the social changes in London which led to the need for the Underground railway. Why was the development of the Underground criticised?
Ans. The development of suburbs as a part of the drive to decongest London led to the extension of the city beyond the range where people could walk to work. Though these suburbs had been built, the people could not be persuaded to leave the city and stay far away from their places of work in the absence of some form of public transport. The Underground railway was constructed to solve this housing problem.
The development of the Underground was criticised because underground travelling was considered risky. Many felt that it added to the mess and unhygienic conditions of the city. Also, to clear the path for the construction of the Underground, a number of houses were destroyed. This led to the displacement of a great number of London poor.
Q: 7 Explain what is meant by the Haussmanisation of Paris. To what extent would you support or oppose this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, to either support or oppose this, giving reasons for your view.
Ans. Haussmanisation of Paris refers to the re-building of Paris by Baron Haussmann in the mid-eighteenth century. When Louis Napoleon III came to power, he appointed Haussmann as the chief architect of the new city. He laid out new streets, straight sidewalks, boulevards and open avenues, and planted full-grown trees. Haussmann’s architectural plans had positives as well as negatives. His name has become a representation of forcible reconstruction to enhance the beauty of a city and impose order. This is because his plans led to the displacement of 350,000 people from the centre of Paris. This included many poor people who were now rendered homeless. Nevertheless, this “Haussmanisation of Paris” had its boons too. Public works employed nearly one in five working people. Haussmann’s work was criticised by the wealthy and poor alike during his time, but Paris became a symbol of civic pride for the French and it became the nucleus of many new architectural, social and intellectual developments that influenced other parts of the world in the twentieth century.
(Base your letter on these facts)
Q: 8 To what extent does government regulation and new laws solve problems of pollution? Discuss one example each of the success and failure of legislation to change the quality of
(a) public life
(b) private life
Answer
Government laws play an important role in controlling the rates of pollution in a city. However, simply passing laws is not enough. They need to be properly enforced as well. It is also a fact that people tend to find ways of getting around laws. So, apart from legislations, government also needs to carry out intensive public awareness programmes aimed at educating the public about the need and ways of controlling pollution; and about how they too have a stake in environmental governance.
Example to show the success of legislation to change the quality of
Public life - The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Commission, established as per the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905, was successful in controlling industrial smoke in colonial Calcutta.
Private life - The British government passed the Clean Air Act in 1956. This law was aimed at controlling domestic sources of smoke pollution, and to do so, it introduced the concept of smokeless zones. In these areas, smokeless fuels had to be burnt. As a result, air pollution in British cities was substantially reduced.
Example to show the failure of legislation to change the quality of
Public life - By the 1840s, British cities such as Derby, Leeds and Manchester had smoke control laws in place. However, these laws did not succeed much in controlling smoke emission. Since smoke is not easy to monitor or measure, it was easy for factory and steam engine owners to get away with small adjustments to their machinery, and this did nothing to stop smoke.
Private life - During the colonial period, a huge population depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. This was an important source of air pollution in Calcutta. Though successful in controlling industrial smoke, the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Commission found it difficult to control this domestic smoke.
CHAPTER : 6
Class X - Print Culture and the Modern World
Q: 1 Give reasons for the following:
(a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
(b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
(c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping index of prohibited books from the mid 16th century.
(d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of press and freedom of association.
Answer
(a) China had Woodblock printing since around 6th century. It was in 1295, that the Italian explorer Marco Polo returned from his long stay in China, where the woodblock printing was popular. He brought this technique with him to Europe.
(b) Through the publications of his protestant ideas, Martin Luther challenged the orthodox practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. He wrote 95 theses criticizing many of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This led to a division within the church and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. He also translated the New Testament of which 5000 copies were sold within a few days. These were impossible without the printing technology. Deeply grateful to the print, Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.”
This is the reason why Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
(c) The Roman Catholic Church had to face many dissents from mid-16th century onwards. People had written many books that interpreted the God and the creation in their own ways or as they liked. Therefore, the church banned such books and kept the record of such banned books. It was called the Index of Prohibited Books.
(d) Gandhi considered that the liberty of speech, liberty of press and freedom of association were three most powerful vehicles of expressing and cultivating public opinion. Therefore, he said the fight for Swaraj was a fight for liberty of speech, press, and freedom for association.
Q: 2 Write short notes to show what you know about:
(a) The Gutenberg Press
(b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
(c) The Vernacular Press Act
Answer
(a) The Gutenberg Press: It was established by Johann Gutenberg. By 1448, he had perfected the system of printing with olive and wine presses, using contemporary technological innovations. The first book that he printed was the Bible, making 180 copies in 3 years. Although these books were printed, a unique touch remained in the handmade decorations of the front page, illuminated borders and purchaser-specified designs. The Gutenberg Press was the first-known printing press in the 1430s.
(b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book: He was critical of the print medium. He believed that though some books do provide worthwhile knowledge, others are simply a bane for scholarship. Erasmus accused printers of publishing books that were not mere trifling but “stupid, slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious”. He also felt that large numbers of such books reduce the value of the quality writings.
(c) The Vernacular Press Act: Modelled on the Irish Press Laws, it was passed in 1878. This law gave the government tyrannical rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. If a seditious report was published and the newspaper did not heed to an initial warning, then the press was seized and the printing machinery confiscated. This was a complete violation of the freedom of expression.
Q: 3 What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
(a) Women
(b) The poor
(c) Reformers
Answer
(a) The spread of print culture in 19th century India benefitted Indian women through learning and education. The liberal families supported the education of women to study or read as they believed education and reading would make the women corrupt. This led to the counter reaction, as most of the oppressed women began to study and read books and learnt writing in secrecy. Some literate women started to write books and their autobiographies. Rashasundari Devi, a young married girl wrote her autobiography “Amar Jiban” which was published in 1876. Overall, the print culture in 19th century India helped in spread of the feeling of self-reliance among Indian women.
(b) The poor people benefitted from the spread of print culture because of the availability of books at a low price. The readership among them increased due to the publication of low priced books. Public libraries were also set up from the early 19th century, expanding the access to the books where all people could gain knowledge. Encouraged and inspired by the social reformers, the people like factory workers too set up their libraries and some even wrote books. Kashibaba, a Kanpur mill worker wrote and published ‘Chote aur Bade Ka Sawal’.
(c) Indian reforms of 19th century utilized print culture as the most potent means of spreading their reformist ideas and highlight the unethical issues. They began publishing various vernacular and English and Hindi newspapers and books through which they could spread their opinions against widow immolation, child marriage, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry to the common people of the country. In this way the spread of print culture in the 19th century provided them a space for attacking religious orthodoxy and to spread modern social and political ideas to the people of different languages across the country.
Q: 4 Why did some people in 18th century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?
Answer. Many people in the 18th century Europe thought that the print culture has the power in it to bring enlightenment and end despotism. This would help in spreading of literacy and knowledge among all class of people. Social reformers like Louise, Sebastian Mercier, and Martin Luther felt that the print culture is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion and hence, it would definitely bring enlightenment and an end to despotism.
Q: 5 Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.
Answer. Some people especially from upper class and powerful class feared the effect of easily available printed books. Their cause of fear was that due to the spread of literacy among the common people they may loose their position or authorities. Some people feared that this may lead to the spread of rebellions and irreligious thoughts. For example –
(1) In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church tried to curb the printed books through the Index of Prohibited Books.
(2) In India, the Vernacular Press Act imposed restrictions on Indian press and various local newspapers. Also, some religious leaders and some people from upper castes expressed their fear.
Q: 6 What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in 19th century India?
Answer. The poor people benefitted from the spread of print culture in India on account of the availability of low-price books and public libraries. Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. These were read by people across the country. On the encouragement and support of social reformers, over-worked factory workers set up libraries for self-education, and some of them even published their own works, for example, Kashibaba and his “Chhote Aur Bade Sawal”.
Q: 7 Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India?
Answer. The print culture immensely helped the growth in the growth of nationalism in India in the following ways -
(a) Through vernacular press, oppressive methods of colonial rule were reported.
(b) The misrule of government and its initiative on curbing the freedom of press spread the nationalist ideas that demanded freedom of press.
(c) Nationalist feelings and revolutionary ideas were secretly spread by the dailies like - The Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Indian Mirror, Kesri, The Hindu, Bombay Samachar etc. Through these newspapers national leaders always tried to mobilize public opinion of Indian masses and unite them for the cause of nationalism.
(d) The print culture helped in educating the people who then started to be gradually influenced by the reformist and nationalist ideas of the various Indian leaders like Raja Ram Mohun Roy, Tilak, Subhas Bose and Gandhiji etc.
